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Smoking and microbiome in oral, airway, gut and some systemic diseases

Alteration in the microbiota depends upon two factors: first, shift in taxonomic makeup, such as lower-alpha diversification, lower expression of firmicutes and bacteroides, higher frequency of adhering invaders, decreasing quantities of Faecalibacterium prausnitzi i, higher incidence of Gammaproteobacteri , and second is a microbial function such as diminished short-chain fatty acid generation and amino acid synthesizing, enhanced oxidative stress, elevated sulfate transportation, and steadily increasing auxotrophy [36]

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10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005650 154 PolosaR.BenowitzN